Walter Putnam Blount

Walter Putnam Blount, MD, FACS (July 3, 1900 – May 16, 1992) was a preeminent twentieth-century American orthopaedic surgeon, educator, and scientific pioneer whose seminal discoveries in pediatric skeletal biology, growth modulation, and joint biomechanics transformed the global care of musculoskeletal deformities. Globally revered for his definitive delineation of tibia vara (Blount’s disease), the engineering of the active Milwaukee brace (CTLSO) with Albert C. Schmidt, the introduction of epiphyseal stapling for temporary and reversible hemiepiphysiodesis, his landmark monograph Fractures in Children with its foundational recognition of non-accidental trauma, and his classic vector biomechanics proving why patients must not “throw away the cane,” Blount seamlessly bridged Newtonian mechanical physics and living cellular physiology to establish the foundational principles of modern pediatric orthopaedic surgery and spinal reconstruction.

1. The Shoulders of Giants: Historical Context & Significance

During the first half of the twentieth century, orthopaedic surgery struggled with the management of pediatric skeletal deformities, spinal curvatures, and developmental growth disorders. Recurrent epidemics of poliomyelitis swept across North America and Europe, leaving thousands of infants and adolescents with devastating, asymmetric trunk paralysis and rapidly collapsing paralytic scoliosis. Treatment options of the era were arduous and debilitating: children were confined for months or years in massive, rigid plaster-of-Paris jackets—such as turnbuckle casts, Abbott frames, or Risser localizers—that encased the torso from chin to knees. These cumbersome casts caused cutaneous pressure ulceration, thoracic restriction, severe muscular deconditioning, and profound psychological distress. Furthermore, when surgical arthrodesis was attempted, pseudarthrosis rates were substantial, and the prolonged recumbent immobilization failed to engage the child’s intrinsic muscular envelope.

“If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”

Sir Isaac Newton (1675) / Bernard of Chartres

Simultaneously, the pathogenesis of pediatric lower extremity angular deformities was poorly understood. Progressive genu varum in young children was frequently misdiagnosed as recalcitrant nutritional rickets, syphilitic osteoperiostitis, or benign physiological bowing. Lacking an understanding of asymmetric physeal mechanics, clinicians subjected toddlers to aggressive, repeated tibial osteotomies that frequently failed because the underlying developmental growth disturbance at the posteromedial proximal tibial physis remained unaddressed, condemning young patients to severe joint depression and premature osteoarthritis. In cases of limb length inequality and progressive angular malalignment, the surgical armamentarium was limited to invasive open osteotomies or irreversible destruction of the growth plate via the Phemister technique (1933), which offered zero possibility of growth resumption if corrections were mistimed. In pediatric trauma, surgeons increasingly attempted to transplant adult operative dogma into children, employing aggressive open reduction and rigid metal plate fixation. This uncritical interventionism caused catastrophic iatrogenic complications: physeal arrest, ischemic osteonecrosis, chronic infection, and abnormal longitudinal overgrowth. In degenerative hip disease, clinicians rushed to replace native articular surfaces with primitive prosthetic cups, dismissing conservative biomechanical joint offloading.

Walter Putnam Blount altered the trajectory of musculoskeletal medicine by championing a philosophy of biological conservation grounded in rigorous physical mechanics. He grasped what his contemporaries overlooked: that the growing child is a dynamic, self-regulating biological system endowed with tremendous remodeling capacity, and that mechanical force can be applied non-destructively to modulate bone growth according to cellular laws. Rather than permanently destroying physes, Blount invented temporary epiphyseal stapling to guide skeletal growth reversibly. Rather than encasing scoliotic children in rigid static plaster, he devised the dynamic Milwaukee brace to stimulate active muscular self-straightening. Rather than operating indiscriminately on pediatric fractures, he formulated the biological rules of remodeling, reminding surgeons that children are not miniature adults. And in degenerative hip disease, he deployed elegant vector statics to prove that a simple walking stick in the contralateral hand reduces hip joint reaction force by more than sixty percent. Modern pediatric orthopaedic surgeons, spinal deformity specialists, and limb reconstruction experts stand squarely upon Walter Putnam Blount’s shoulders.

2. Early Life, Formative Education & Career Milestones

Education and Formative Surgical Training

Walter Putnam Blount was born on July 3, 1900, in Oak Park, Illinois, into an exceptional family marked by intellectual distinction, scientific inquiry, and progressive social dedication. His father, Ralph E. Blount, was a respected biology educator and the author of pioneering physiology textbooks. His mother, Dr. Anna Ellsworth Blount, was an extraordinary medical pioneer: a graduate of Northwestern University Woman’s Medical School in 1897, an accomplished obstetrician and gynecologist, an outspoken leader of the women’s suffrage movement, and a past president of the Medical Women’s National Association. Raised in this stimulating household, young Walter developed an analytical scientific mind, a meticulous attention to biological detail, and a deep humanitarian ethic.

Blount attended Oak Park High School and subsequently entered the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, earning his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1921. He pursued his medical education at Rush Medical College of the University of Chicago, one of the nation’s premier medical institutions. At Rush, Blount was exposed to the towering surgical figures of the era, including Dallas B. Phemister—whose seminal work on bone graft biology and epiphysiodesis left an enduring impression on him—and Edwin W. Ryerson, a founding master of modern American orthopaedics. Blount was awarded his Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree from Rush in 1925.

He completed his internship (1925–1926) and initial general and orthopaedic surgical residency (1926–1927) at Wisconsin General Hospital in Madison. Recognizing that European clinics were pioneering advanced skeletal pathology and functional fracture management, Blount embarked in 1927 upon an intensive two-year postdoctoral fellowship across Western Europe (1927–1929). In Dresden, Germany, he studied surgical pathology and spinal anatomy under Christian Georg Schmorl, the undisputed world authority on vertebral morphology and disc pathology (famed for describing Schmorl’s nodes). This profound immersion in spinal histopathology gave Blount an unmatched understanding of endochondral ossification, the ring apophyses, and the micro-architecture of vertebral growth plates. In Bern, Switzerland, he trained under Fritz Steinmann, the innovator of continuous skeletal traction via the transfixing Steinmann pin, mastering the dynamics of skeletal alignment and mechanical tension. He completed his European studies with clinical rotations in Kiel, Munich, and Paris, absorbing both continental diagnostic discipline and conservative functional rehabilitation.

Academic Appointments and Clinical Leadership

Returning to the United States in 1929 with profound histological and biomechanical expertise, Blount made Milwaukee, Wisconsin, his lifelong professional home. In 1930, he was appointed to the attending staff of Milwaukee Children’s Hospital and was soon elevated to Chief of Orthopaedic Surgery, a leadership post he held with distinction for over three decades. Under his stewardship, Milwaukee Children’s Hospital became a world-renowned destination for the treatment of complex pediatric limb deformities, skeletal dysplasias, and spinal curvatures. Concurrently, he maintained active clinical privileges at Columbia Hospital in Milwaukee and served as a consultant to regional institutions throughout the Midwest.

In the academic arena, Blount joined the faculty of Marquette University School of Medicine (which subsequently became the Medical College of Wisconsin). He rose through the academic ranks to become Professor and Chairman of the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, directing resident education and clinical research for decades until his transition to Emeritus Professor. Blount was a demanding yet inspiring educator who insisted on pristine physical diagnosis, biological conservatism, and intellectual honesty, training generations of orthopaedic leaders who carried his principles throughout North America and abroad.

Blount’s clinical stature and scientific authority propelled him into the highest echelons of national and international surgical governance. In 1956, he was elected President of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS). During his presidential tenure, he delivered his legendary address, “Don’t Throw Away the Cane,” a masterpiece of applied mechanics that challenged the surgical community to prioritize conservative joint unloading over unproven operative interventions. In 1960, Blount was elected President of the Société Internationale de Chirurgie Orthopédique et de Traumatologie (SICOT), serving through 1963. He was the first American surgeon in history elected to lead this premier global orthopaedic body, reflecting his vast international esteem and his ability to unite disparate surgical traditions across the post-war world.

In 1966, amidst the rapid evolution of surgical instrumentation for scoliosis, Blount joined Dr. John H. Moe of Minneapolis and a small circle of visionary surgeons to establish the Scoliosis Research Society (SRS), creating the world’s preeminent forum for spinal deformity research. Blount served as the 7th President of the SRS (1972–1973). In lasting recognition of his compassionate care and selfless mentorship, the SRS established the “Walter P. Blount Humanitarian Award,” bestowed annually upon surgeons who demonstrate exceptional humanitarian service to patients with spinal deformities. Blount was elected to honorary and corresponding fellowships in numerous international learned societies, including the British Orthopaedic Association, the French Society of Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology (SOFCOT), the German Orthopaedic Society, and the Scandinavian Orthopaedic Association.

3. Core Orthopaedic Breakthroughs, Eponymous Signs & Innovations

Walter Putnam Blount’s scientific and operative legacy spans five monumental contributions that redefined twentieth-century musculoskeletal practice: the definitive delineation of tibia vara (Blount’s disease), the engineering of the active dynamic Milwaukee brace (CTLSO), the invention of epiphyseal stapling for guided growth, the establishment of biological non-operative principles in pediatric traumatology paired with the early recognition of child abuse, and the vector biomechanical proof of contralateral cane offloading.

Hallmark Anatomical, Diagnostic and Operative Contributions

• Blount’s Disease (Osteochondrosis Deformans Tibiae / Tibia Vara, 1937): In his landmark 1937 treatise in The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Blount comprehensively delineated the clinical, radiographic, and pathological features of progressive developmental genu varum, distinguishing it definitively from physiological bowing and rickets. He established that the deformity arises from a focal disturbance of endochondral ossification within the posteromedial aspect of the proximal tibial physis and adjacent metaphysis. Blount categorized the condition into two distinct clinicopathological variants:
  • Infantile Tibia Vara: Characterized by an onset between 1 and 3–4 years of age, bilateral presentation in up to 80% of cases, marked internal tibial torsion, limb shortening, and a palpable, non-tender osseous beak at the posteromedial proximal tibial metaphysis. Radiographically, it exhibits progressive wedging and downward sloping of the medial tibial epiphysis, irregular metaphyseal beaking, and medial joint line depression (later classified into six sequential stages by Arvo Langenskiöld). Blount demonstrated that early-stage cases (Langenskiöld I–II) may resolve or respond to corrective bracing, whereas advanced stages (III–VI) require valgus tibial osteotomy or medial physeal bridge resection before permanent joint depression ensues.
  • Adolescent Tibia Vara: Presents after 8–10 years of age (typically during the pubertal growth spurt), is overwhelmingly unilateral, and is strongly associated with rapid growth and morbid obesity. Adolescent Blount’s disease demonstrates less pronounced metaphyseal beaking but features partial or complete premature epiphysiodesis of the medial proximal tibial growth plate, severe mechanical varus axis deviation, and abnormal joint line obliquity, necessitating precise realignment osteotomy or lateral hemiepiphysiodesis.
• The Milwaukee Brace (Cervico-Thoraco-Lumbo-Sacral Orthosis / CTLSO, 1945–1946): Co-invented in 1945–1946 with master orthotist Albert C. Schmidt at Milwaukee Children’s Hospital, the Milwaukee brace revolutionized the non-operative management of spinal deformities. Originally created to replace heavy plaster turnbuckle jackets for postoperative stabilization following spinal arthrodesis in children paralyzed by poliomyelitis, it rapidly became the gold standard non-operative orthosis for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) with apex at or above T8, as well as Scheuermann’s juvenile kyphosis. The brace comprises a precisely molded pelvic girdle fitting securely over the iliac crests (reducing lumbar lordosis and stabilizing the pelvis), three vertical contoured uprights (one anterior, two posterior), an adjustable cervical ring with an anterior throat mold and dual posterior occipital pads, and floating lateral thoracic rib pads adjusted by straps. Crucially, the Milwaukee brace operates as an active dynamic orthosis: rather than passively immobilizing the trunk, its axial elongation and targeted lateral pads stimulate the adolescent to actively contract intrinsic paraspinal musculature to pull away from the contact points (the active neuromuscular righting response), thereby building trunk strength and halting curve progression throughout the pubertal growth spurt.
• Epiphyseal Stapling (The Blount Staple / Temporary Hemiepiphysiodesis, 1949): Pioneered in 1949 alongside George R. Clarke in a landmark JBJS publication, epiphyseal stapling introduced the revolutionary concept of reversible skeletal growth modulation (“guided growth”). Prior to Blount’s innovation, equalizing leg-length discrepancies (LLD) or correcting angular knee deformities required either high-morbidity corrective osteotomies or irreversible surgical epiphysiodesis (the 1933 Phemister bone block technique), which permanently abolished physeal function. Blount designed rigid, heavy-duty three-pronged (and subsequently reinforced two-pronged) forged stainless steel staples that spanned the physis extraperiosteally under radiographic guidance without violating the delicate germinal cartilage layer. Symmetrical stapling across both medial and lateral cortices retarded longitudinal growth to allow an underdeveloped contralateral limb to achieve equality. Asymmetrical hemiepiphysiodesis (medial stapling for genu valgum, lateral stapling for genu varum) harnessed the continuing growth of the unstapled side to correct angular malalignments. When skeletal realignment was achieved prior to maturity, staple removal permitted the physis to resume normal longitudinal growth—establishing the fundamental intellectual and biomechanical prototype for contemporary tension-band plating.
• Non-Operative Pediatric Traumatology & Recognition of Child Abuse (1955): In his monumental 1955 monograph, Fractures in Children, Blount established the cardinal axiom of pediatric musculoskeletal care: “Children are not miniature adults; their fractures remodel.” He mounted a vigorous defense of biological conservatism, demonstrating that the thick, vascularized, osteogenic periosteum of childhood acts as a mechanical hinge that stabilizes closed reductions and accelerates rapid bridging callus. Blount formulated the biological rules governing spontaneous fracture remodeling: angular deformities remodel most completely when located near a rapidly growing physis (such as the distal radius or proximal humerus) and aligned within the plane of adjacent joint motion; appositional displacement remodels reliably; but rotational malalignment never remodels and must be corrected anatomically. Furthermore, in Fractures in Children, Blount was among the earliest clinicians in medical history to describe the unmistakable radiographic hallmarks of non-accidental trauma—multiple skeletal fractures in varying stages of chronological repair, unexplained metaphyseal corner fractures, and spiral diaphyseal fractures in pre-ambulatory infants—identifying child abuse as an orthopaedic imperative seven years prior to C. Henry Kempe’s famous 1962 paper on the battered child syndrome.
• Biomechanics of Assistive Ambulation (“Don’t Throw Away the Cane”, 1956): In his celebrated 1956 AAOS Presidential Address, Blount utilized rigorous Newtonian static equilibrium equations and free-body diagrams to elucidate the mechanics of single-leg stance and hip joint contact forces. He demonstrated that during single-limb support, the body’s center of mass lies medial to the femoral head, creating an adduction torque that must be counteracted by a massive contraction of the abductor musculature (gluteus medius and minimus) acting across a short anatomical lever arm (~5 cm). This violent abductor tension generates a compressive resultant joint reaction force across the articular cartilage of 2.5 to 3.5 times body weight. Blount proved mathematically that placing a cane in the contralateral hand provides a long lever arm (~45 cm from the hip center). Applying a modest downward force of only 20 to 30 pounds onto the contralateral cane creates a powerful counter-abduction torque, reducing the required abductor muscular effort by over 60% and dropping total compressive joint contact force across the hip by more than half. Conversely, he proved that carrying a cane in the ipsilateral hand fails to relieve abductor demand and frequently worsens joint shear stress through adverse trunk tilting.

Biomechanical Principles: Physeal Dynamics, the Hueter-Volkmann Law, and Equilibrium Statics

The biomechanical foundation unifying Blount’s disparate innovations was his deep mastery of skeletal mechanics, specifically the interplay between mechanical load and cellular response. Central to this understanding was the Hueter-Volkmann law, which states that continuous mechanical compression across an active growth plate inhibits longitudinal endochondral ossification, whereas reduced pressure or tension accelerates physeal elongation. Blount recognized this biological law as the primary driving force in both the progression and the therapeutic correction of pediatric skeletal deformities.

In Blount’s disease (infantile and adolescent tibia vara), the initial developmental or obesity-induced varus tilt shifts the mechanical weight-bearing axis medially. As the center of gravity falls across the medial compartment of the proximal tibia, abnormal compressive stresses concentrate on the posteromedial proximal tibial physis. In accordance with the Hueter-Volkmann law, this excessive sustained compressive pressure suppresses chondrocyte proliferation and hypertrophy in the physeal growth zone. The lateral proximal tibial physis, experiencing normal or diminished compressive loading, continues to elongate unhindered. This asymmetric growth velocity exacerbates the varus tilt, which further concentrates the ground reaction force medially, creating a self-perpetuating vicious cycle of progressive deformity, metaphyseal collapse, and eventually medial physeal bridge formation.

Conversely, Blount’s epiphyseal stapling turned the Hueter-Volkmann law into a therapeutic instrument. By placing rigid stainless steel staples across the convex aspect of a deformity (e.g., the medial distal femoral and proximal tibial physes in genu valgum), the staples exert an unyielding mechanical constraint that halts longitudinal growth on the convex side. Meanwhile, the unconstrained concave physis continues its normal longitudinal growth, naturally straightening the limb. Blount emphasized that staples must be placed extraperiosteally and strictly span the central third of the physis in the sagittal plane to prevent inadvertent recurvatum or procurvatum deformities. Because the germinal chondrocyte layer is not violated, removing the staples releases the mechanical compression, allowing the chondrocytes to resume normal longitudinal growth.

The Milwaukee brace (CTLSO) represents a corresponding masterwork of kinetic bioengineering. Unlike passive immobilization casts that compress the torso circumferentially and induce trunk muscle atrophy, the Milwaukee brace functions as a dynamic neuromuscular trainer. Blount designed the pelvic girdle to seat firmly over the iliac crests with an anterior abdominal apron, flattening the lumbar lordosis and tilting the sacral base into slight retroversion. This stable pelvic foundation establishes a fixed base from which vertical distraction is exerted through the contoured uprights to the submandibular throat mold and occipital pads. Importantly, Blount replaced early mandibular chin pieces with a throat mold beneath the jawline after discovering that resting chin pressure caused severe orthodontic deformities and mandibular retrognathia. The throat mold does not lift the jaw directly; rather, it acts as a proprioceptive reminder. When the child attempts to slump, the neck ring and throat mold contact the submandibular tissues, triggering an immediate active righting reflex: the child actively contracts their deep cervical and paraspinal extensor muscles to pull the head and torso upward away from the brace. Simultaneously, adjustable thoracic lateral pads apply transverse corrective vectors at the apex of the rib hump. As the rib pad pushes anteriorly and medially against the rib prominence, the child actively shifts their trunk away from the pad toward the concave side. This continuous muscular engagement converts the orthosis into an active kinetic exercise apparatus, de-rotating the vertebrae, unloading asymmetric compression across the neurocentral synchondroses, and arresting scoliotic curve progression during rapid pubertal growth spurts.

In his 1956 analysis, Blount applied static equilibrium mechanics to resolve a clinical paradox: why does a patient with severe hip osteoarthritis or healing femoral head pathology limp, and how can a lightweight cane produce such profound biological relief? In single-leg stance, the pelvis behaves as a first-class lever pivoting about the center of rotation of the femoral head. To maintain a level pelvis, the sum of clockwise and counterclockwise moments around the femoral head center must equal zero. Let W represent body weight minus the supporting limb, acting downward through the body’s center of gravity at a distance D_W (approximately 10 to 15 cm medial to the hip joint center). Counteracting this gravitational adduction moment is the hip abductor muscle group (gluteus medius and minimus), exerting an upward and lateral tensile force Ab at the greater trochanter with an anatomical lever arm D_Ab of only approximately 5 cm. Because the lever arm of the body weight is two to three times longer than the abductor lever arm, static equilibrium requires that Ab × D_Ab = W × D_W. Therefore, the abductors must contract with a force equal to two to three times body weight.

The total joint reaction force exerted across the articular cartilage of the femoral head is the vector sum of body weight and abductor muscle tension. Consequently, in normal unassisted single-limb stance, the hip experiences an intense compressive load of three to four times body weight. When the patient holds a cane in the contralateral hand, the cane contacts the ground at a distance D_C of approximately 45 cm from the center of the affected hip joint. Applying a downward vertical thrust C onto the cane introduces a powerful new abduction moment (C × D_C) that directly opposes the gravitational adduction torque: W × D_W = (Ab × D_Ab) + (C × D_C). Because the cane lever arm (D_C ≈ 45 cm) is nine times longer than the abductor lever arm (D_Ab ≈ 5 cm), every single pound of force exerted onto the cane eliminates nine pounds of required abductor muscle tension. For example, in a 75 kg patient, leaning just 15 kg onto a contralateral cane generates an abduction torque of 15 kg × 45 cm = 675 kg·cm. The gravitational torque of body weight is 65 kg × 12 cm = 780 kg·cm. The abductor muscles now need to generate only 780 − 675 = 105 kg·cm of torque, requiring an abductor force of only 105 / 5 = 21 kg (compared to 156 kg without the cane—an astounding 87% reduction in abductor muscular force). The resulting joint reaction force plummets from nearly 220 kg down to (65 − 15) + 21 = 71 kg, representing a total joint load reduction of over 67%. Blount emphasized that holding the cane in the ipsilateral hand is biomechanically disastrous: with the cane adjacent to the affected hip, its lever arm is tiny or even negative, forcing the patient to awkwardly tilt their torso over the hip, disrupting gait mechanics, increasing shear stress, and doing virtually nothing to reduce abductor demand.

4. Master Class Pro-Tip

The successful management of pediatric musculoskeletal conditions rests upon three immutable principles: respecting the unique biological remodeling capacity of the immature skeleton, harnessing physeal growth modulation through precise anatomical timing, and applying strict Newtonian static mechanics to joint offloading.

When executing temporary hemiepiphysiodesis or guided growth for angular knee deformities, meticulous surgical technique is essential. Never strip or cauterize the periosteum over the physis, as periosteal injury can provoke unintended permanent bony bridge formation. Center your implants precisely across the coronal axis of the physis under intraoperative fluoroscopy in both anteroposterior and true lateral projections; an anteriorly displaced staple or tension plate induces unwanted recurvatum, while posterior positioning provokes sagittal flexion contractures. Monitor skeletal age scrupulously using serialized left wrist radiographs (Greulich and Pyle atlas) rather than chronological age alone, and plan implant removal when the mechanical axis is within 2 to 3 degrees of neutral, as a rebound phenomenon of accelerated growth frequently occurs following hardware extraction in younger children.

In pediatric traumatology, resist the temptation to achieve anatomical perfection through aggressive open reduction and internal fixation. Trust the osteogenic vitality and biomechanical hinge of the intact periosteal sleeve. Remember the biological hierarchy of remodeling: angular malalignment in the plane of motion adjacent to a rapidly growing physis remodels remarkably, apposition and mild shortening remodel completely, but rotational deformities never remodel and must be anatomically corrected at initial closed reduction. Finally, when prescribing an assistive walking aid for an arthritic or healing lower extremity, ensure that the cane is held strictly in the contralateral hand and advanced synchronously with the affected limb. Instruct the patient to apply downward pressure at heel-strike to maximize the contralateral moment arm, decompress the abductor tension, and shield the native articular cartilage from destructive joint reaction forces.

Master Class Surgical Pearl: Physeal Biology, Pediatric Fracture Remodeling, and Contralateral Joint Offloading

5. Primary Landmark Publications & Bibliography

The foundational contributions of Walter Putnam Blount are preserved in these original landmark monographs and peer-reviewed surgical literature:

• Blount WP. Tibia vara: osteochondrosis deformans tibiae. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1937;19(1):1-29.
• Blount WP, Clarke GR. Control of bone growth by epiphyseal stapling: a preliminary report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1949;31-A(3):464-478. doi:10.2106/00004623-194931030-00002. [DOI]
• Blount WP. Fractures in Children. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1955.
• Blount WP. Don’t throw away the cane. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1956;38-A(3):695-708. Reprinted in: J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85-A(2):379-389. PMID: 12571320. [PubMed]
• Blount WP, Schmidt AC, Keever ED, Leonard ET. The Milwaukee brace in the operative treatment of scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1958;40-A(3):511-525. doi:10.2106/00004623-195840030-00003. [DOI]
• Blount WP, Schmidt AC, Bidwell RG. Making the Milwaukee brace. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1958;40-A(3):526-624. doi:10.2106/00004623-195840030-00004. [DOI]
• Blount WP, Moe JH. The Milwaukee Brace. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1973.
• Mostofi SB, ed. Who’s Who in Orthopedics. London: Springer-Verlag; 2005:29-31.

6. Biographical Provenance & Acknowledgments

This historical biography was synthesized for the OrthopaedicsOne Knowledge Network as part of A Who’s Who of Orthopaedics, adapted and expanded from the foundational biographical directory Who’s Who in Orthopedics (Springer-Verlag London) edited by Seyed B. Mostofi, BSc, MBBS, FRCS (Ed).